Gender in Indian English Literature

The analysis of gender themes in Indian English literature poses significant challenges. The essay explores the theme of gender in Indian English literature, a linguistic legacy of over two centuries of British colonization that has profoundly influenced Indian literature. Additionally, India's deeply entrenched patriarchal society further complicates the examination of gender themes. This essay, divided into two parts, scrutinizes two notable works: Ismat Chughtai's short story 'The Quilt,' originally written in Urdu and now translated into English, which centers on queer desire and is included in English literature curricula at various Indian universities. Furthermore, the essay will examine Arundhati Roy's 'The God of Small Things,' which reflects feminist ideologies and explores contemporary perceptions of women's identities.

Until September 2018 homosexuality was illegal under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, hence when the daring Ismat Chagtai wove the story ‘Lihaaf’ ( translated as The Quilt) expressing  using metaphoric mode to bring to the centre queer desire in the 1940s against the background of rising communal violence, and political chaos of the partition of India it was “an audacious real-life inspired Urdu short story that challenged heteronormativity, and in the process caused great controversy.”[2] 

Chughtai's narrative effectively conveys the theme of confinement faced by Indian women, particularly in the context of arranged marriages and the rigid separation of male and female spaces. The story unfolds within an affluent Muslim household, focusing on the protagonist, Begum Jaan. After being deserted by her wealthy, pederastic husband, Begum Jaan experiences profound loneliness, which fosters a deep bond with her female servant, Rabbu. The tale is narrated through the perspective of Amiran, a nine-year-old girl who spends a short time with her aunt, Begum Jaan. From the beginning, the narrative introduces themes of gender and rebellion. Amiran recalls her youthful defiance: "I was then a small girl and fought with my brothers and their friends all day. Often, I wondered why I was so aggressive. At my age, my other sisters were busy drawing admirers while I fought with any boy or girl I ran into!" During her mother's visit to Agra, Amiran is entrusted to the care of her adopted sister, Begum Jaan, for approximately a week.

The connection between Begum Jaan and her servant, Rabbu, is portrayed in two nuanced manners. At first, it is conveyed through the calming massages that Rabbu administers to ease Begum Jaan's 'itch'. The nature of their bond is further represented by the shadows on the wall, which take the form of an elephant—a sight that young Amiran observes. Forced to share a room with her aunt, Amiran becomes an unobtrusive witness to the tender interactions between the two women, symbolised by the elephant's shadow gliding across the wall in the softly lit space. While these moments are not explicitly articulated, they are delicately implied through the movement of shadows beneath the quilt, acting as a metaphorical cover for delving into this bold theme. Phrases such as "The elephant inside the quilt started moving faster" and "All of a sudden, the quilt started shaking again, like an elephant was struggling inside" enhance the metaphorical depth of the narrative.

Chughtai's narrative presents a liberating perspective for the constrained woman, as illustrated by the evolution of Begum Jaan's life: "As she tossed and turned, her quilt made newer shapes on the wall, but none held the promise of life for her. Then why must one live? ...such a life as Begum Jaan was destined to live. But then she started living and lived her life to the full. It was Rabbu who rescued her from the fall. Soon, her thin body began to fill out, her cheeks began to glow, and she blossomed into a beauty." The story subtly advocates for a re-evaluation of societal norms around sexuality, echoing Wittig's assertion that ". . . sexuality is not for women an individual and subjective expression, but a social institution of violence." [3]

The narrative takes an unexpected turn when Rabbu temporarily departs. During this time, Begum Jaan expresses a romantic interest towards her young guest, Amiran, who confesses, "I was very young then and in love with Begum Jaan." However, with Rabbu's return and the conclusion of Americans' visit, the story shifts focus back to the central themes. Chughtai powerfully conveys the neglect faced by women in confining marital settings and the exploration of repressed desires that challenge the patriarchal social structure through the lens of homosexuality.

Sumita Kumari, in her essay "Rethinking Sexuality: A Reading of Ismat Chughtai's "Lihaaf," says, "The idea of gender is highly argued, and it has been stated as a purely social construct ... Cultural norms influence and reinforce gender expectations, and intersectionality illuminates the complex interplay of factors like gender, moreover, class in shaping an individual's experiences and identity construction."

Part II

“Caste-based marriage and control over women's sexuality have historically been pivotal in sustaining India's caste system, where caste and gender are inexorably linked. Brutal consequences often follow when Dalits and women challenge the caste-based marriage system and the ensuing inequality that imposes rigid behavioral codes for both women and all Dalits”[4] 

Shifting the focus to gender in Indian English literature, particularly the intersectionality of caste, class, and patriarchal norms, Arundhati Roy's The God of Small Things provides a profound examination through the character of Ammu. Ammu's story exemplifies the rebellion of a woman from a lower caste against societal norms, choosing her path in matters of love, independence, and desire. Despite facing severe restrictions, including a denied education and a coercive marriage ending in divorce—thereby increasing her social stigmatization—Ammu finds solace and resistance in her illicit relationship with Velutha, a man from an even lower caste. This relationship, defying caste and gender norms, is encapsulated when Roy notes, "Perhaps it is true that things can change in a day. That a few dozen hours can affect the outcome of whole lifetimes," highlighting Ammu's acts of rebellion against the patriarchy.

Ammu's life narrative includes an 'elaborate Calcutta childhood,' during which she had some autonomy over her decisions, albeit limited. Her defiance and claim to self-worth are met with harsh punitive measures by her family and the larger caste-bound community, or 'samaj.' Roy poignantly illustrates Ammu's struggle: "She had been plucked off the stage in the middle of her performance. The play had gone on. But Ammu had ceased to exist." Despite the lack of solutions offered in Roy's narrative, it underscores a persistent theme of resistance and the pursuit of personal agency against caste-bound patriarchal constraints. Ammu's determination to break free from her oppressive marriage and assert her rights and dignity with Velutha reflects a beacon of self-determination and empowerment.

In this socio-cultural milieu, feminist literature emerges as a potent tool for resistance and advocacy, offering strategic responses to gendered challenges. Kamala Bhasin poignantly expressed this sentiment: "Na toh mai randi hu, aur na hi mai devi hu, mai to ek insan hu" (I am neither a prostitute nor a goddess; I am a human). These literary works serve as cultural artefacts that challenge patriarchal norms and as platforms for reimagining women's roles in society.

Both 'The Quilt' and 'The God of Small Things' not only navigate the challenging waters of gender and sexuality within the Indian context but also serve as beacons of resistance against oppressive societal norms. These works have carved out new spaces for the discussion of feminism and gender within Indian English literature, reflecting and inspiring changes in the broader cultural and social narratives. Esteemed authors like Kamala Markandaya, Anita Desai, Shashi Pandey, and Arundhati Roy have continued to build on these themes, illustrating the complex roles women navigate in a society in flux. Their narratives resonate across generations, challenging patriarchal values and advocating for a nuanced understanding of gender and identity in India.

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[1] Thirani, S. (2023, September 2). Ismat Chughtai’s quilt and queer desire. Daily JSTOR.

https://daily.jstor.org/ismat-chughtais-quilt-and-queer-desire/

[2]  Wittig, Monique. (2001). One is not born a woman. In V. B. Leitch (Ed.), The Norton

Anthology of Theory and Criticism (pp. 1821-1829). Norton & Co.

[3] Kumari, Sumati. (2023, October 31). Rethinking sexuality: A reading of Ismat

Chughtai's "Lihaaf". The Contemporary Literature, 8(5), Article 16.

https://doi.org/10.53032/tcl.2023.8.5.16)

[4] Chakravarti, Uma. (2022). Caste: Ideology and material structures: A feminist perspective. In D. Nampoothiri, T. Y. Vinod Krishnan, A. Paul, & A. Jayaprakash (Eds.), Nationhood, social justice, and unequal transformation: Essays for K.R. Narayanan (pp. 71-85). Primus Books.